Chapter SixResults and Discussion

6.1Introduction

6.2Effects of three tasksupported forms on the text listening

comprehension

6.2.1The effects of input frequency on the text listening

comprehension

6.2.2The effects of question preview on the text listening

comprehension

6.2.3The effects of answer option preview on the text listening

comprehension

6.3Effects of three tasksupported forms on the text listening comprehension

of the learners at different proficiency levels

6.3.1The effects of input frequency on the learners at different

proficiency levels

6.3.2The effects of question preview on the learners at different

proficiency levels

6.3.3The effects of answer option preview on the learners at different

proficiency levels

6.4Effects of three tasksupported forms on the tasks with different

difficulty levels

6.4.1The effects of three tasksupported forms on the easy task

6.4.2The effects of three tasksupported forms on the difficult task

6.4.3The effects of three tasksupported forms on the task with

medium difficulty level

6.5The interaction effects of three tasksupported forms

6.6Discussion 

6.6.1Information processing

6.6.2Purpose and expectation

6.6.3Visualsbased and visualsaided

6.7Summary

Chapter SevenFindings, Implications and Limitations

7.1Introduction

7.2Major findings

7.2.1Findings related to the effects of input frequency on the text

listening comprehension

7.2.2Findings related to the effects of question preview on the text

listening comprehension

7.2.3Findings related to the effects of answer option preview on the text

listening comprehension

7.3Implications

7.3.1Pedagogical implications

7.3.2Testing implications

7.3.3Theoretical implications

7.3.4Methodological implications

7.4Limitations

7.5Suggestions for future research

7.6Summary

Bibliography

Appendices

Chapter OneIntroduction

This research reports an exploratory study which investigated the effects of the three tasksupported forms on text listening comprehension performance of Chinese nonEnglish majors at different proficiency levels and their interaction effects.

This chapter is mainly concerned about the need for the study, research questions, research methods, the research purpose and the organization of this book.

1.1Need for the study

Here we mainly discuss the reasons from three aspects: the importance of listening, the complexity of frequency in second language learning and the necessity of studying question preview in listening comprehension.

1.1.1The importance of listening

Listening is critically important for both learners who want or need to participate in oral interpersonal communication and for learners who want or need to receive information from such oral sources as lectures, media broadcasts and so on.It is thus clear that listening is a crucial skill in the language acquisition process where the development of the skill would lead to more productive results in other areas of language learning programs.

It is generally acknowledged that listening is not just a separate skill from speaking, but lays a foundation for speaking.The development of good listening skills is seen not only as something valuable for its own sake but as something that supports the growth other aspects of language use, such as speaking and reading.According to Krashen (1985), speaking ability emerges naturally after enough competence has been developed through listening.

With the development of second language acquisition (SLA) research, the status of listening within second language learning theory has also been strengthened.Krashen (1981: 34) states that the role of listening is a tool for understanding，and listening is a key factor in facilitating language learning.

In recent years, the status of listening in language programs has undergone substantial changes.From being a neglected skill and being regarded as a minor part within a speaking course it now appears a core course in many language programs.And listening as a channel for language input is also supposed to be very important in language instruction.As Rost (2005) points out that listening is vital in the language classroom because it provides input for students.Ironically, the teaching of listening has not received its deserved attention in language learning until recently and has never been in a better state.

We, as teachers, should take on more responsibilities to improve students’ foreign language listening comprehension proficiency by more research on classroombased listening comprehension.

1.1.2Complexity of frequency in second language learning

In the last 40 years of applied linguistics or second language studies, frequency as a causal variable in language learning is not prominent; of course it is certainly not new.It has been a key concept in the theories and practices of American structural linguists, especially of behaviorists.Minor differences aside, all behaviorists see language learning as a process of habit formation.The behaviorists’ understanding of language learning was responsible for the extensive use of the Audiolingual Method in foreign language teaching, the method of repeated listening and drilling of the same sentences.

Since 1970s, behaviorism fell out of favor, the ALM became unfashionable, and few applied linguists considered frequency very much thereafter.And the term “frequency” has been shunned by most language educators and researchers in the past 40 years.

Only in the last decade, however, has it been explicitly reintroduced into studies of SLA after its theoretical development in psycholinguistics, connectionism, and child language acquisition.Most typically, N.Ellis (2002: 143—188) in his article “Frequency Effects in Language Processing” gives a thorough review of frequency effects in the processing of phonology, reading, spelling, lexis, formulaic language, language comprehension, grammaticality, sentence production, and syntax etc.And he states that frequency is a necessary component of all theories of language acquisition and processing and it is a key determinant of language acquisition and an allpervasive causal factor in language learning and processing.However, some scholars and researchers do not agree with him, for example, Gass & Mackey (2002), Eubank & Gregg (2002), etc.They emphasize the complexity of the task of interpreting the role and importance of frequency.Furthermore, classroom observations also point to the limitations of a frequency account.

Therefore, from the development process of frequency in second language learning field and the results of some studies, we can find, frequency, one simple enough question on the face of it, in fact, is a complicated one.

1.1.3Necessity of studying question preview in listening comprehension

Because of learners’ limited knowledge and the lack of experience, listening comprehension becomes more difficult for EFL learners, especially in oneway listening situation in which they do not have the opportunity to see the speaker and taking a listening test with audiotaped input.

Underwood (1989: 30) states that it is unfair to plunge students straight into the listening text, even when testing rather than teaching listening comprehension, as this makes it extremely difficult for them.So before listening, students should be “tuned in” ，so that they know what to expect, both in general and specific tasks.According to Underwood, question preview before listening becomes necessary and is an effective way to help listeners better complete listening tasks.

But people have different opinions about the effects of question preview on listening comprehension.Some people think that question preview may positively affect listening comprehension by focusing the attention or supplying information about the text; some people argue that question preview may affect listening comprehension negatively by interfering with learners’ comprehension process, increasing the burden on the attention or imposing shallow processing.Of course, others think that it may have no significant effect.However, little research of this kind has been done, and there has been a marked absence of studies examining the effects of question preview on listening comprehension in classroom teaching.

Especially, the domestic largescale foreign language tests, for example, CET 4 & 6 and TEM 4 & 8, adopt different question forms in listening comprehension test part.CET 4 & 6 present questions on the tape at the very end of the listening task while TEM 4 & 8 present the questions on test papers for students to have question preview first.The superficial variations actually reflect the test designers’ different attitudes towards the role of question preview in listening comprehension.Its not difficult to find that the issue of question preview is rather controversial.

And in daily listening teaching, students often ask whether they should read through the questions or the answer options before actual listening.

Consequently, there is an urgent need to investigate the effects of question preview on listening comprehension.